halit neg site-d hytad-iin uv gesen garchig dotor iim yum bihcchihsen bhiin Qunzhou gej hen yumbe? Yuan dynasty buyu mongoliin ezent gyrnii uyd hubilai haan gaihamshigtai gaihamshigtai bodlogo heregjyylj bsn bizdee? medehgyi ee ene sain unshij chadsangyi angli helendee lag nuhudyyd utgiig ni zygeer bicheed ugvul sain l bn zuv utgaar bichsen yumuu buruu utgaar bichsen yumuu medeh yum alga odoo byr uvchin bolj bh shig bn hytaduudiig hadraj sejigledeg kkk
The Stone Inscriptions of Quanzhou
Fig. 11 Detail of a portrait of Zhu Yuanzhang in the collection of the National Museum of China. Fig. 11 Detail of a portrait of Zhu Yuanzhang in the collection of the National Museum of China.
Fig. 12 Imperial edict to Mir Hajji, during the Yongle reign of the Ming dynasty, 100cm by 72cm. Fig. 12 Imperial edict to Mir Hajji, during the Yongle reign of the Ming dynasty, 100cm by 72cm. This imperial edict was issued forty years after the end of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. The use of the three main languages of the Yuan court, Mongolian, Persian and Chinese, underlines the continuity between the Yuan and Ming imperial systems. The "Hajji" of the addressee's title indicates that he performed the pilgrimage to Mecca, while "Mir" means someone who has earned merit on the battlefield (in Timurid usage this term indicates a member of the military aristocracy). The Chinese text reads: "The emperor of the Great Ming instructs Mir Hajji that he who is sincere and honest will revere God [tian] and serve the emperor [shang]. He will also have command over good people, and give loyal service to the imperial court. Hence, God will bless him, and he shall enjoy eternal bliss. You, Mir Hajji, have always followed the teachings of Muhammad. You are pious and honest, and lead people to do good. You also revere God and serve the emperor loyally. Such good deeds deserve to be honoured and praised. Therefore, I am issuing this imperial edict to protect your property, and so that no official, soldier or civilian shall despise, insult or transgress it. Whoever disobeys my order shall be held to account. This edict was issued on the 11th of the fifth month of the fifth year of Yongle." [1407] Facsimile copy in the Chinese Nationalities Cultural Palace. [Plate and adapted translation from Quanzhou Yisilanjiao Shike]
Quanzhou was the largest ocean port of the Yuan dynasty, and was extolled as the world's greatest port in the travel accounts of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta. It wrested this position from Guangzhou at the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, when the local trading community headed by the Muslim tycoon Pu Shougeng submitted, with their fleets, to the Mongols. Guangzhou was sacked for failing to produce such farsighted leaders. However, Pu might not have been farsighted enough as, at the beginning of the Ming dynasty, many of his descendents were executed for his betrayal of the Song.
Fig. 12a Detail. Ming imperial seal, with a date according to the Chinese calendar in Chinese, Persian and Mongolian. Fig. 12a Detail. Ming imperial seal, with a date according to the Chinese calendar in Chinese, Persian and Mongolian.
A large number of stone monuments and inscriptions left by the Islamic community that lived in Quanzhou during the Yuan dynasty survive today, thanks in part to the efforts of Wu Wenliang and the Quanzhou Foreign Relations Museum. A revised edition of Wu's Religious Inscriptions of Quanzhou (1st ed. 1957) was published in 2005 (see review). Over 300 stone inscriptions from Islamic tombs, graves and mosques in the Quanzhou district, in Arabic and Chinese, are painstakingly documented in this book, among which are 30 tombstone inscriptions including dates. The earliest date records the death of a certain Hussayn b. Muhammad of Khalat, Armenia, in the year 567 (1171 CE). This is the only inscribed date from before the Mongol period. A further four of the tombstone dates are from the Hongwu reign (1368-1398) of Zhu Yuanzhang, founder of the Ming dynasty, while the remaining twenty-five correspond to the ninety-year period of Mongol rule over Quanzhou. (Figs 7, 8, 9 & 10)
Shifting Loyalties from Mongol to Ming
Fig. 13 Quran with Chinese translation recorded in both Arabic and Chinese scripts. Fig. 13 Quran with Chinese translation recorded in both Arabic and Chinese scripts. Sinophone Muslims developed a number of distinct written traditions. One of these is known as Chinese madrasa language (jingtang yu), which is simply written Chinese with a formalised vocabulary of Islamic terms. Another is known as "little script" (xiaojing), which broadly speaking is Chinese of any description written in Arabic script, but here is specifically a transliteration of Chinese madrasa language into Arabic script. The interlinear translation of the Quran shown here was produced by Ma Zhenwu, an octogenarian Hui akhund from Dachang, Hebei.
In the early life of the founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang (Fig. 11), the emperor-to-be was a member of a religious sect known as Mingjiao. Upon ascending the throne, Zhu suppressed this movement and all traces of his earlier association with it. The resulting ambiguity in the historical record has allowed room for the widespread belief amongst Chinese Muslims today that Zhu Yuanzhang was a Muslim, at least in his private life.[7] There is little direct evidence to support such a view, and historians generally agree that the Mingjiao sect was organised around some form of Manicheanism or Maitreyan Buddhist cult. What can be said without straining the historical record is that many of the generals who joined the revolutionary movement led by Zhu Yuanzhang were Muslim, for example Mu Ying and Chang Yuchun, who campaigned in Yunnan and central Shandong, respectively. These two areas later became leading centres of Islamic learning in China. (Figs 12 & 12a)
After the establishment of his dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang commissioned the construction of mosques in the lower Yangtze valley, and issued an edict in praise of the Prophet Muhammad that is recorded on steles found at a number of mosques today. (Fig. 13 & 13a) The most famous of these, that of the Jingjue Mosque in Nanjing, was appended to the first full Chinese biography of the Prophet written by the Nanjing writer Liu Zhi in the late 1600s. During the Yongle reign (1403-1425), the emperor Chengzu (Zhu Di) issued an edict in support of an Islamic institution in Quanzhou in Chinese, Persian and Mongolian, the three main languages of the Mongol court. This edict is one small reflection of the ambition of early Ming emperors to claim themselves as successors to the Mongol khans, sovereigns over the steppes and the agricultural plains, and patrons of religions of both the West and the East. The story of the Muslim Admiral Zheng He is perhaps another reflection of this ambition, when the Ming attempted to build on the international trade routes opened up by the Mongols. Chinese Muslims prospered under the ecumenical policies of the Mongol and early Ming emperors, and their relative social status declined as the Ming dynasty implemented travel restrictions and became more emphatically Chinese. (Fig. 13). [AHG]
Notes
[1] "Zhonghua Suwei'ai Zhongyang Zhengfu dui Huizu renmin de xuanyan" (Manifesto of the Chinese Central Soviet to the Hui people [Huizu renmin]), 1936/8/1.
[2] Bai Shouyi, Zhongguo Huihui minzu shi (A history of the Huihui nationality in China), Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2003, pp.36-44.
[3] Hu Xiaopeng, "Huihui yi ci qiyuan ji hanyi xintan" (A new perspective on the origin and early meaning of the word Huihui), in Xibei minzu wenxian yu lishi yanjiu (Documentary and historical studies on the nationalities of the north-west), Lanzhou: Gansu Renmin Chubanshe, 2004, pp.85-94.
[4] Yang Jun, "Huihui ming yuan bian" (Discussion of the origin of the name Huihui), Huizu yanjiu, Yinchuan, 2005:1, pp.35-41.
[5] Yang Huaizhong, "Yeheidie'erding" (Amir al-Din) in Bai Shouyi, Zhongguo Huihui minzu shi, op. cit., pp.813-818.
[6] Ma Shouqian, "Ahmad" in Bai Shouyi, Zhongguo Huihui minzu shi, op. cit., pp.791-800.
[7] Bai Shouyi, in a 1946 work on the history of Islam in China, told of an inherited belief within the Muslim community in Xi'an that Zhu Yuanzhang was born into a Muslim family, that the "usurping" Jianwen emperor went on pilgrimage to Mecca after fleeing from China, and that the 11th Ming emperor, Wuzong (Zhu Houzhao, reign title Zhengde, r.1506-1522), was a practising Muslim. Bai Shouyi did not discuss the historical credibility of these communal beliefs, and a low-level debate has continued since then on whether the first Ming emperor was actually Hui or Han. Evidence cited in favour of claiming him for the Hui side is that Zhu Yuanzhang had an empress called Ma, a common Hui surname; that a domed tomb was built at his burial site in the manner of Muslim dignitaries of the time; and that he wrote a tract in praise of the Prophet Muhammad. Two recent additions to this debate were printed in Zhonghua dushu bao in 2005, Zhou Youguang advancing the case in favour of Zhu Yuanzhang being a Muslim (see "Baisui laoren Zhou Youguang da kewen" (Centenarian Zhou Youguang answers reporter's questions), Zhonghua dushu bao, 22 January 2005), and Chen Wutong countering against this view (see Chen, "Shei zhengmingle Zhu Yuanzheng shi Huizu" (Who has ever proved that Zhu Yuanzhang was a Hui?), Zhonghua dushu bao, 15 June 2005, at
http://culture.people.com.cn/GB/40479/4 ... 84545.html, accessed on 6 Mar 2006).
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